How can humans produce knowledge?

How can valet de chambre being beingss educate fellowship?There are solely two shipway in which humankind can produce association by passive observation or through with(predicate) brisk essay. To what extent do you agree with this statement?What is friendship? Knowledge from what we envision is a thick pattern as it is the consciousness of or information ab tabu a subject that you get by know or study, either know by iodin person or people genrally dictionary.cambridge.org( append citation). Though in the T.O.K text by Richard van de Lagemaat knowledge can be said to be expertified true run across and accordingly if something is observed, an idea that is believed, that it is true and if justified consequently that is knowledge. These two meanings can both can be said to be correct definitions of knowledge. Though how do we gain this discretion or belief in the first place? The tittle of this TOK essay it states that on that point are only two ways in which h umankind can produce knowledge through passive observation and spielive experimentation. Active experimentation can be seen as an act where there is voluntary cognisant engagement on the activity at hand while passive observation be seen as proccesses that are more fixed by environmental forces and therefore involuntary. Though knowledge skepticisms based of this deduction on what are passive observation and active experimentation are is it ever possible for a cognisant pass to be in a passive state? And are there forms of knowledge production in addition to passive observation and active experimentation?In both scientific and behavoural experiments is it ever possible for a cognisant mind to be in a passive state? Experiments such as the bobo doll experiment could be brought into question in this subject area as easy as certain simple high shoal science experiments. A bobo is an inflatable toy that is approximately five feet tall and usually made of a napped durable vinyl or plastic. This experiment was headed and created by Albert Bandura in 1961 and 1963 in which he studied the behaviour of children. This experiment involved two different observational rooms both would accommodate a bobo doll, heavy(a) role personate, a child and the same toys. In unity room the adult role model acted in a violent manner towards the doll ver clumpy abusing it and acting aggresive physically using the toys or his/her fists. While in a nonher room the adult role model simply played by his or herself showing no direct signs of aggresion after a small period of metre both adult role models left the room. The room which contained the violent role model the child acted violently towards the bobo doll while in the room with the adult that did non show aggresion the child would either keep doing what he was doing or played in friendly with the bobo doll. It was seen by Bandura that through the passive observation of the children they learned how to act towards an obje ct or person. The child was not able to reign the environment he/she was is it was fixed. Though is it possible to say that all these children did not have a cognisant mind when it came to behaviour?What had not been taken into account in the experiment where the experiences that the child had gone through at his/her home with their respective parents what had accomplished them emotionally. Say for example in the case a home where parents had been violent to each former(a)(a) and so this child would have percieved what to do when he/she byword violence, to act back with violence. Would it be a lie to say that this childs mind is not congnisant in this case? I believe so. At this point he/she actively experiments the position of his/her mother or father by acting violently based on what he/she had percieved, this could be the case with some of the children who acted violently towards the bobo doll and hence the childs cognisant mind would be not in a passive state this excessive ly brought in the ways of knowing both perception and emotion affecting each childs reponse in the experiment. In a situation I was forced against my allow for to swing a bung tied to a string around in a circle and keep it going in a visor motion. It is not possible for me to passively observe as I know the mechanics behind it learnt though my natural philosophy class at school hence I am able to deduce that a certain force is required to keep the bung swinging in a uniformly bank bill motion and as such I do not need to apply a larger force than what is needed. Therefore the velocity of the bung go out not make it more difficult to hold the string and apply the force and it wont stop or go out of control suddenly. Though another question remains.Are there forms of knowledge production in addition to passive observation and active experimentation. As innate knowledge comes in to question, and so does the knowledge given over to us by authority. It is hard to judge if the evide nce is sufficient enough for many new things such as theories or if this is knowledge that has been produced through this active experimentation during this time due our explosive growth of knowledge, over that last hundred years, a short time when compared to the creation of the universe, expert opinions win overd the ways we think of things such as Isaac newton who came out of nowhere one day and uprooted the laws of physics, but it is rare for that to happen again in this millennia since Albert Einstein. Experts are human beings and therefore imperfect so we can also say that they can be wrong, just because they superpower specialize in a certain field and they have been in that field for years doesnt mean that everything they state is justified true belief or correct information. This knowledge was brought on by a transition from a passive observation to an active experimentation for the authorities but given to us as second hand information so do we say that it is through pa ssive observation that we learned this or active experimentation or does it fall under both? As experts opinions tend help shape the institution so does the news media, stating what is originally happening in the world bad news, extraordinary news or relevant news. As they can be seen as authority giving knowledge to persons who discoverer or read about what is reported.In the case of innate knowledge it tends to be a mystery as to when did it bugger off? Was the only reason that it had been passed slew was that it was necessary for life? Innate knowledge is produced through a species evolution. Can other knowledge that is not nessecary for life be transmitted d admit through the DNA, from a Father to a son? As baby birds hatch they function the same as almost every animal in grounding of eating and excreting. Though the only reason as to why the nest does not fill with excrement is innate knowledge that was in their DNA, no one or thing had tought them do to such a thing th ey just knew they had to do it. Other cases include a babies knowledge that they can suckle at their mothers breast in order obtain nutrients or satisfy their hunger. So due to this knowledge that is innate is possible to say that it was produced through evolution or through the DNA? Another example of innate knowledge is the swimming reflex for small toddlers, stated when face d own in water that covers their faces they instictively paddle and or kick in a swimming motion.These reflexes were neither gained through passive observation nor active experiment but what are some examples of such knowledge producing situations in which there was either passive observation or active experiment. In basic physics we learn of the law of gravity and hence in an experiment to test the law you would release an object from your hand such as a ball we would have prior knowledge and expect the ball to drop due to the force of gravity. If your hear the sound of rain drops outside hitting the paveme nt or objects which are outside we can passively deduce that it is raining. Or for when you are outside in the middle of the day when the sun is supposed to be out though there dark gray clouds blocking the suns rays of light then it rains now knowledge is produced where the person knows that with dark gray clouds rain follows soon after. These three situations are one active experiment and two passive observations in which knowledge was produced.I agree to an extent seeing as how most knowledge is usually produced through passive observation or active experimentation. Through both obeservation and active experiment we use many ways of knowing such as perception, emotion, intuition and memory. Though these are not the only ways that humankind can produce knowledge. As innate knowledge that is passed down through the DNA whether learned through the passive observation of someone dying before them or a near death experience which etched into their very DNA. I believe that the roots of all knowledge production stems from either passive observation or active experimentation.What is the Statesn Exceptionalism?What is American Exceptionalism?American Exceptionalism DefinitionAmerican exceptionalism is a concept which depicts that the unite States is unique and different from the abide of the world. According to various research conducted over the years, it can be deduced that most Americans believe the United States is an exceptional nation (Onuf, 2012 1). The question now remains- what makes it unique? Is being different really a good thing? base on the above definitions, it can be considered more on the positive view since it is portrayed as having predominance over others. On the contrary, exceptionalism tends to come with its own disadvantages, for instance the United States has been particularly exposed with negative qualities like racism, discrimination, violence and so forth. Even though, Americans had a different aim or purpose, which is to uphold human r ights and display liberty and democracy. Thanks to Eleanor and Franklin Roosevelt, in 1948 the United States started the process of becoming a United Nations by writing a universal declaration of human rights (Ignatieff 2005 1). This decision made America to be at the top in world-wide level.If being exceptional means that Americans believe their country is special, then there is nothing special about this exception since all nations treasure their national myth. If thismeans that the U.S. is very benevolent, gifted, dedicated to civil and religious exemption, equality, justice, prosperity, social mobility, peace and union with all countries, and then plays by the book, then it is very contradictory to the facts because the United States has time without number fallen so short from these ideals. On the other hand, American exceptionalism refers to its strength, values and indispensable status, and the United States are exempt from the rules of conduct and implementation of other c ountries, the enemy, neutral, and allies must be pushed back (Hodgson 2009 14). For these reasons, the exception becomes a burden, may be even more dangerous than it is worth.American exceptionalism is indeed a complex topic and shall need not to explore all the twist of it, from a historian point of view says that the United States of America can be exceptional in the sense that they know where they are coming from and the development they have gone through without associating it with ethnical involvement.OVERVIEW OF EXCEPTIONALISMThroughout American history, wishful thinkers and corporealists have deviated the theme of exceptionalism. Their different comment carnal knowledge importance of the nationalist intention ideological and material interests dominance of unusual policy historians obsessed republican principles and national interest. They served as or disguised export and universal focus. At one extreme, a materialist view that, in the United Kingdom the United States is unique in facts on the ground never is replicated elsewhere Patriot propaganda of the role is remind fellow colonists to the interests threaten and arouses them in their defence. After series of terrorist attacks in the Iraq war, American exceptionalism has become one of the plethoric issues discussed. This abstraction is not just a popular idea, but, on the hostile, a concept common in the United States. These deep historical roots can be traced back to its origin and development of the main characteristics and influence. On one hand, freedom and equality of the highest priority. However, many U.S. citizens feel proud to consider their way of life is superior to other countries, and actively seek to share on the basis of the Constitution, which often is not logically consistent with equality and freedom.The term American exceptionalism was actually founded from the brilliant work of Alexis de Tocqueville which stands for qualitatively different from all other westbound count ries. One of the important reasons of this exceptionalism was the freeing of the United States from the British. Exceptionalism itself was sought out from colonial period up to 1776 when American became a separate independent country from the British. Since then, the concept became more popular and replaced the idea of apparent destiny.The essence of uniqueness went back to 16th century, when John Winthrop expressed his opinion to his peer Puritans, that there will be a city upon a hill were they would never have to experience the bad things they had gone through in old Europe. One of the main factors that influenced the issue identity of America at that time was that they had vast pool of resources, which Europe didnt have at that moment. America now as a nation which supports human rights can refer to the fact that the first people who populated North America were usually eager seekers of a new destiny, better living and the dominant encouragement for their risky location was bas ically land and the possibility of recognition of their own values and ideas. So now North America was called new world and this cut the eyes of those who were against the old world. The illustration regarding society, liberties, wealth, government and God were polished to create a better place for surviving than old Europe.Now the question is what makes a country to be exceptional? For a country to be exceptional is has to have these four qualities. Firstly, is to have the eagerness to stand on its own to face variety of issues, along with the perceived liberty to withstand the pressures and hygienic evaluation of others. Secondly, it also believes that its national values and routine are widely cognize and its policy positions are right, not just beneficial. Thirdly, is to have strong ability to visualize things inwards, domestic governmental study and development, being persuasive in international meetings. Lastly, but not the least is the national policy which states that mak ers and legislators are not obligated to follow their nations interest and acting through multilateral institution is just an option.It is a well-known fact that, exceptionalism is not only in the United States, but what makes it different from others is the wideness and magnitude of American power, with the interest it has are without prior, they influenced political orientation and idealism with deep efforts, and also they are sharpened by political system, established by the separation of powers and by prejudiced difference over foreign policies. Now for many Americans exceptionalism has been a part of their perspective, values and national character which receives only questions and comments. As earlier mentioned, many countries are considered exceptional but in the case of Americas position its shows its exceptionalism in the real world not only in some international meetings. So till this date no other country has come close to America in international power and for the past few years the gap is just been increasing wider (luck 2003 4).However, the concept of exceptionalism change as time goes on. Although out of the United States during the colonial era, the United States was considered as a symbol of opportunity, wealth and political weight, the border was closed to many outsiders as to their origin, racial reasons, and practical considerations. At this point, the exception means power and protectionism. However, in the contemporary context, what is known as American exceptionalism can be seen in the current policy and political theory, ignoring any difference between the past and present, the reasons and opportunities resulting in symbolic values, and the principle of contradiction and controversy. Exception tend to maintain a positive view of the past, present and future, which is an essential element of the social doctrine and propaganda (Shafer 1991 1)THE TYPES OF EXCEPTIONALISMExceptionalism can be distinguished into two forms which are the sig nificant and methodological exceptionalism. In contradiction to substantive exceptionalism and methodological exceptionalism are very different in approach, even if it is the court or by the legislative bodies in finding solution to freedom of bearing arguments. In some countries like Canada, South Africa and Europe it is admitted that the American methodology has a deeply different acceptance of structure of freedom of expression judgement. besides the substantive view, it is mostly considered in some liberal democracies that the united states is an outlier not only with respect to freedom of expression opinion and policies, but with respect to freedom of expression methodology as well. Unlike substantive exceptionalism in which more is needed to be explained the methodological exceptionalism is more briefly explainable in impairment of natural course of rights complexification- where simply understandable rights become into a more elaborate ones as a problem of policy makers fa ce a greater value perception mode in this array, making rules, principles and presumptions necessary for them to handle that larger array (Ignatieff 2005 31).IDEALISM AND REALISMAmericans have been fighting over the relative importance of ideas and the definition of interests of the meaning of the United States. Idealists and materialists may not agree about human nature, but they provide complementary national narrative that supports exceptionalism. An idealist now looks idealists to celebrate the revolution in the past Patriot they waved the principle of self-determination is a universally applicable Equal World. Their self-understanding converted to American ideology an inspiring new concept of states role in the history of the world. This was significantly expressed byAbraham Lincoln in his Gettysburg Address We here highly break that these dead shall not have died in vain-That this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom-and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.While on the other hand materialism points out realistic story to articulate the interests even more than the ideas, but also to be devoted to the basic principles of self-determination. stipendiary attention to the first settlers to conquer the wilderness, they celebrate history of elf management, self-sufficiency and continuous improvement. The empire of British has been an empty shell, not mandatory act, serious deadening to the vital interests of rights awareness settlers population. Patriots challenge is to remind his fellow citizens internal threats and overcome habitual loyalty gently jurisdiction the aggressive theme better things to do Our ancestors, Jefferson wrote in 1774, are farmers, rather than the lawyer. moment of lawyers, such as Jefferson Empire crisis. They conversation about common sense. the principle of self-evident to a mobilization of people, make them sleeping and a new sense of collective strength. (Onuf, 2012 83)EQAULITY AND CULTURAL DIVERSITYThe idea of equality in America back then competency be imaginary for others. Equality meant a personal identity, free arbitrary class distinctions. There is equally disorientation because of the breakup of cultural diversity. Still the quality of interpretation of free exceptionalism is very strange, in some respects, because the centre of attention and analysis of the historical tradition to support this argument. The argument essentially is that the United States began to open political culture and everyone horizon at this time to continue to shape the political debate and public policy. Such an interpretation can visually quite attractive. However, if we begin to consider by analysing the logic, such an explanation, we must question the mechanism, it is said to work here. What is the mechanism of dissemination and continuation of the political culture? Culturalism is not, of course, to say simply, each propagation to the next thr ough a fixed set of beliefs. Their argument is significantly more complex. Cultural theory in one of the most interesting attempts to nurse the charges that is too static (Ekstein, 1988 791)Proposed this explanation is that, in an attractive and suspicious continuity. It is reasonable to expect that these basic interpretive filter through multiple generations handed down, is not to adjust to change, even to fundamentally change the course of history. The culture will change, but also shows a mechanism, which should make us rethink the rest throne of the exceptions to the free parameters. He told us that substituting learning is clearly important, but a persons world view is not dependent on exactly what their elders to con them, but to shape their entire life experience, some clock the formation of the younger generation of experience and profound from previous generationsThe point here is that the values, culture, and the concept of change and experience. Therefore, we cannot sa y that the United States is a nation built on the set of the value of freedom, and therefore, we believe that these values today. A certain extent, we found a strong liberal / principle of individualism in American political culture in the late twentieth century, need more than their origins explained. We also need to understand that it is what the American experience, and encourage Americans to reinterpret these values into anti-statist policy preferences. (Inglehart, 1990 4)POLITICAL UNSTABILITYAll the promising difficulties of religion and politics have been resolved by refusing that religious thought has had a very big impact in the political field. From a point of politics, business and government in the United States is like no other country, whose sates have made an important impact in the modernization process. Now because other countries were not influenced by business attraction than in the United States, so this made foreign government to push their workers to be in union s and they actually did it before the United States (Jacoby, 1987 9)The citizens of America have actually pointed out that in the flock that was carried out it persistently favours a non-united government and weak states. Most of the times when some majority of the populations are asked by the survey takers of their opinion in whether they compliments the President houses of congress to be commanded by one single party or dividend between two, in this case they select the last minute feedback by massive majority. In addition to that, they always show a difference for small governmental units to larger ones.A very interesting and clever article written by J.P. Nett The state as a conceptual variableThis article explains the huge difference between the American and the European creative activity of the state. He also pointed out that the latter is distinguished by the relative statelessness.Now the thing is that in the United States only their law is dominant. So what makes Americ a and its people exceptional is the unique power their lawyers have (Shafer 19918)You see what made American exceptionalism different is that it is unlike what we have in Europe and Britain, in the United States I could say that the most influential factor that affect the political and social change are the lawyers and its experts. As we can see several times they have been the master mind for bringing it about. So these have opened a bigger argumentative guarantee of human right and civil liberties than the rest of the world.(Shafer 19919)Clinical psychology History, Applications and ResearchClinical Psychology History, Applications and ResearchClinical PsychologyWhat is clinical psychology?Clinical psychology is the discipline that utilizes what is recognized in relation to the human behavior principles to assist people with their several concerns and troubles they incidence throughout the path of life in their emotions, relationships, and physical selves (Plante, 2011). The sto ry will talk about the history and budding nature of clinical psychology and how psychology is yet overtime changing. Next, the paper will talk about the functions that research and statistics come in into clinical psychology. Lastly, the paper will comprise the differences amid clinical psychology and spare health professions types, such as psychiatry versus clinical psychology, social work versus clinical psychology, and school psychology versus clinically psychology.History and Evolving Nature of Clinical PsychologyClinical psychology has transformed above the last 25 years. To begin with the DSM-III was create in addition to the standards of APA were revised. The American psychological Society was founded, in addition to the APA published the Presidential Task force findingsfor evidence-practice. Two of the major approaches evolved would be the appeal of Cognitive-Behavioral in addition to the Humanistic Approach. In the 1970s the Approach of Cognitive-Behavioral was well-li ked and they were utilized for depression in addition to treatment spotlighting on feeling, changing thinking, and expectations become as significant as the objective of changing explicit actions (Plante, 2011). The Humanistic Approach was further founded off of theory and the philosophy that humans can develop from understanding behaviors and experiences. The humanistic approach supposed in considering compassion in addition to positive unconditional reinforcement. With regards to evolving of psychology, subsequent World War II, above 40,000 veterans was hospitalized for psychiatric reasons in VA hospitals. The irresistible want for services of clinical for these men effected in a enormous enhancement in clinical psychologists offering a pad variety of inclusive psychological services, as well as psychotherapy, psychological testing, consultation, and research (Plante, 2011). Subsequent that, above 4,000 psychologists was occupied in the course of the VA. In the fifties throughou t 1970s, there were considered approaches of intervention that made psychotherapy an preservative in services in behavioral, the family systems, cognitive-behavioral, and humanistic approaches to intervention materialized as popular and compelling alternatives to the additional customary interventions and theories (Plante, 2011). This demonstrated a huge influence on clinical psychology. Finally, in the biopsychosocial approach in the 1970s was deemed the most excellent approach to understanding psychological illnesses. In addition, it was decisive that all illness shoot from an fundamental problem such as, psychological, biological,or social issues.Role of Research and Statistics in Clinical PsychologyResearch is activity of clinical psychology use of the scientific method to counter questions of interest to society and researchers (Plante, 2011). The broad objective of research in clinical psychology is to obtain knowledge regarding human behavior and to employ these facts to help advance the lives of families, individuals, and groups. The scientific method is a set of procedures and rules that explain, clarify, and forecast a strict phenomenon (Plante, 2011). Consecutively to recognize totally how clinical psychologists discover research, there requires being a hypothesis, in a few cases requires to alter hypotheses and to recognize new selective information that will be assembled and examined. The primary stage of research is that psychologists have got to affirm a phenomenon. A device that is usually utilized is the DSM-IV-TR which was circulated by the American psychiatric Association. The instruction manual explains several clinical syndromes and catalogs extremely precise criteria of diagnostic for every psychiatric problem, consequently enable researchers to superiorly make certain that the similar measuring are used to describe each population researched (Plante, 2011). The research will then slim down precise features that contract with emotions, thoughts, and behavior that are machine-accessible with the definite syndrome that was initially assessed hypothetically. Once a cautious explanation is constructed, a hypothesis has got to be extended and tested to sufficiently enlighten the behavior of interest. For instance, researchers might be interested in learning additional regarding changes in the sexual response incidence by patients using Prozac versus Elavil, two extremely different antidepressants (Plante, 2011). Sometimes In regards to research, there might be additional pressing issues that can be influence cognitive functions. Just the once the hypothesis is concluded, then it is tested to perceive if there is correctness or even inconsistent and consistent findings. Precisely forecasting behavior founded on hypotheses turn out to be an index representing that individual hypotheses are certainly valid. Several diverse types of research investigations and experiments are utilized to check hypotheses (Plante, 2011).D ifferences Between Clinical Psychology and Other psychological Health ProfessionsClinical Psychology Versus Social WorkSocial work is in general a discipline of masters-level that has traditionally centered on patient advocacy, patient case management, and a link to finest social service benefits and agencies (Plante, 2011). Clinical psychology is utilized on a daily basis in social work. The Social Work Practice Research faculty applies to the training of social work from courses of clinical psychology. Examples of execution of a Practice Research Module at diverse training levels (e.g., practicing clinical social workers, masters level students, and doctoral students) are provided. It is concluded that the want for a PRM is expected to add to experience of social work practitioners pressure to account for their efficiency in clinical psychology (Turnbull Dietz-Uhler, 1995).Clinical Psychology versus PsychiatryPsychiatry is a medical exam area of expertise that spotlights on ab normal behaviors (Plante, 2011). Psychiatry and Clinical psychology are two major disciplines in psychological study and health. In regards to researching both clinical psychology and psychiatry journals of psychiatry tended to have superior influence than journals of clinical psychology, and their effect was uneven journals of clinical psychology quoted psychiatry journals at a a great deal superior rate than the reverse (Haslam Lusher, 2011). With regards to clinical journals, journals of clinical psychology were lesser assimilated than journals of psychiatry, and health psychology/behavioral medicine and clusters of neuropsychology were comparatively marginal to the network (Haslam Lusher, 2011).Clinical Psychology Versus School PsychologySchool psychologists are experts who utilize knowledge regarding human behavior and affect that knowledge in a setting of school (Plante, 2011). Many high schools about the world, have either a school counselor or a school psychologist to assi st children with listening, counsel and a fit way to liberate internal feelings. In a latest study to observe if college undergraduates recognize the distinction amid clinical and school psychology, the results were equally surprising low in knowledge and disciplines. Undergraduates used diverse sources of information to study of school psychology and clinical as a graduate choice school. Additional, psychology majors rated clinical psychologists as being additional engaged in individual therapy, consultation, assessment, and research than school psychologists (Gilman Handwerk, 2001).ConclusionThis paper In conclusion, has conversed the history and evolution about clinical psychology that to this day, psychology is varying every moment. It also discussed how research and statistics are essential to understanding clinical psychology. Lastly, the paper discussed distinctions amid clinical psychology and diverse mental health professions types.ReferencesHaslam, N. N., Lusher, D. D. ( 2011). The structure of mental health research networks of influence among psychiatry and clinical psychology journals. Psychological Medicine, 41(12), 2661-2668. doi10.1017/S0033291711000821